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[124] In a similar manner, the Jewish trade unions excluded non-Jewish professionals from their ranks after 1918. [34] Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including Casimir the Just, Bolesaw I the Tall and Wadysaw III Spindleshanks. [84][85] A new citizen of Poland, he's never even set foot in the country at least not yet. Further disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the 18th century, from the accession to the throne of its last king, Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski in 1764. If caught, Germans would murder the escapees and leave their bodies in plain view as a warning to others. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by Berek Joselewicz, took part in the Kociuszko Uprising the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Stara Synagoga ("Old Synagogue") in Krakw, which hosts a Jewish museum, was built in the early 15th century and is the oldest synagogue in Poland. This period led to the creation of a proverb about Poland being a "heaven for the Jews". You can apply for a Presidental citizenship grant at your local government office in Poland, or at an embassy or consulate. [155] During the September Campaign some 20,000 Jewish civilians and 32,216 Jewish soldiers were killed,[156] while 61,000 were taken prisoner by the Germans;[157] the majority did not survive. [269] According to Krzyanowski, this declaration of "abandoned" property can be seen as the last stage of the expropriation process that began during the German wartime occupation; by approving the status-quo shaped by the German occupation authorities, the Polish authorities became "the beneficiary of the murder of millions of its Jewish citizens, who were deprived of all their property before death". Jews from eastern Europe, mostly from Russian and Polish territory, had been coming to Germany since the 19th century, driven from their homes by anti-Jewish laws, pogroms and poverty. [118], While the average per capita income of Polish Jews in 1929 was 40% above the national average which was very low compared to England or Germany they were a very heterogeneous community, some poor, some wealthy. Additionally, it has been noted that some ethnic Poles were as prominent as Jews in filling civil and police positions in the occupation administration, and that Jews, both civilians and in the Polish military, suffered equally at the hands of the Soviet occupiers. With the fall of communism in Poland, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. [253] As many as 1500 Jewish heirs were often murdered when attempting to reclaim property. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. [194] By the end of 1941 all Jews in German-occupied Poland, except the children, had to wear an identifying badge with a blue Star of David. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. Antony Polonsky & Joanna B. Michlic, editors. [300] As of 2019 another museum, the Warsaw Ghetto Museum, is under construction and is intended to open in 2023. Many Polish intellectuals, however, were disgusted at the promotion of official antisemitism and opposed the campaign. It was constructed out of bronze and granite that the Nazis used for a monument honoring German victory over Poland and it was designed by Nathan Rapoport. We maintain and continue to grow a comprehensive online database of surviving records to preserve and share their contents with the global Jewish community tracing their family roots in Poland. There's a gotcha: if he naturalized as a US citizen before January 1951, his Polish citizenship would have been automatically revoked . [106], In 1925, Polish Zionist members of the Sejm capitalized on governmental support for Zionism by negotiating an agreement with the government known as the Ugoda. [250], Following World War II Poland became a satellite state of the Soviet Union, with its eastern regions annexed to the Union, and its western borders expanded to include formerly German territories east of the Oder and Neisse rivers. Zionism, which was designated by the Soviets as counter-revolutionary was also forbidden. [159], The Soviet Union signed a Pact with Nazi Germany on 23 August 1939 containing a protocol about partition of Poland (generally known but denied by the Soviet Union for the next 50 years). [158] Polish Jews later served in almost all Polish formations during the entire World War II, many were killed or wounded and very many were decorated for their combat skills and exceptional service. During the late 1970s some Jewish activists were engaged in the anti-Communist opposition groups. As a result, according to the 1931 census, 79% of the Jews declared Yiddish as their first language, and only 12% listed Polish, with the remaining 9% being Hebrew. [146] In 1937 Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs Jzef Beck declared in the League of Nations his support for the creation of a Jewish state and for an international conference to enable Jewish emigration. The harshest measures designed to compel Jews to merge into society at large called for their expulsion from small villages, forcing them to move into towns. "Reports of romances, of drinking together in taverns, and of intellectual conversations are quite abundant." Soon the Nazis demanded even more from the Judenrat and the demands were much crueler. [25], In the post-war period, many of the approximately 200,000 Jewish survivors registered at the Central Committee of Polish Jews or CKP (of whom 136,000 arrived from the Soviet Union)[25][26][27][pageneeded] left the Polish Peoples Republic for the nascent State of Israel or the Americas. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in Hebrew, and as transliterated into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because Polania can be broken down into three Hebrew words: po ("here"), lan ("dwells"), ya ("God"), and Polin into two words of: po ("here") lin ("[you should] dwell"). Some 20,00040,000 Jews were repatriated from Germany and other countries. [147] The common goals of the Polish state and of the Zionist movement, of increased Jewish population flow to Palestine, resulted in their overt and covert cooperation. Some future Israeli leaders studied at University of Warsaw, including Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir. [138] As a result, on the eve of the Second World War, the Jewish community in Poland was large and vibrant internally, yet (with the exception of a few professionals) also substantially poorer and less integrated than the Jews in most of Western Europe. Only New York City had more Jewish residents than Warsaw. [245] Also, all Polish Jews who perished in the Holocaust behind the Curzon Line were included with the Soviet war dead. [136] In a town of Luboml, 3,807 Jews lived among its 4,169 inhabitants, constituting the essence of its social and political life. [33] Travelling along trade routes leading east to Kyiv and Bukhara, Jewish merchants, known as Radhanites, crossed Silesia. Beit Krakw Wstp do Judaizmu (Introduction to Judaism): "Korzenie" (Roots). HOTLINE +94 77 2 114 119. judith harris poet "[266], For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of returning Jewish survivors left Poland soon after the war ended. The Gestapo provided a standard prize to those who informed on Jews hidden on the 'Aryan' side, consisting of cash, liquor, sugar, and cigarettes. Warsaw has an active synagogue, Beit Warszawa, affiliated with the Liberal-Progressive stream of Judaism. Their departure was hastened by the destruction of Jewish institutions, post-war anti-Jewish violence, and the hostility of the Communist Party to both religion and private enterprise, but also because in 19461947 Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah to Israel,[28] without visas or exit permits. [69] The 1827 decree by Nicolas while lifting the traditional double taxation on Jews in lieu of army service made Jews subject to general military recruitment laws that required Jewish communities to provide 7 recruits per each 1000 "souls" every 4 years. The Pale of Settlement (Russian: , chert osdlosti, Yiddish: -, tkhum-ha-moyshv, Hebrew: , tm ha-moshv) was the term given to a region of Imperial Russia in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. At the same time, approximately 110,000 Poles had been forcibly evicted from the area. The Jews, like other inhabitants of the region, saw a fall in their living standards. [75][76], While most Polish Jews were neutral to the idea of a Polish state,[77] many played a significant role in the fight for Poland's independence during World War I; around 650 Jews joined the Legiony Polskie formed by Jzef Pisudski, more than all other minorities combined. According to Jewish survivors, ethnic Poles did not participate in the pogrom and instead sheltered Jewish families.[74]. [15] Throughout the interwar period, Poland supported Jewish emigration from Poland and the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. The Soviet Occupation of Poland, 193941, and the Stereotype of the Anti-Polish and Pro-Soviet Jew. There, it was reinforced by a considerable number of Polish bandits. [263], Several causes led to the anti-Jewish violence of 19441947. The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with the reign of Sigismund I the Old (15061548), who protected the Jews in his realm. It is significant in this regard that in 1921, 74.2% of Polish Jews spoke Yiddish or Hebrew as their native language; by 1931, the number had risen to 87%. Only a few of them survived. Using a comparative approach, Anna Cichopek-Gajraj discusses survivors' journeys home, their struggles to retain citizenship and repossess property, their coping with antisemitism, and their efforts to return to 'normality'. There are two rabbis serving the Polish Jewish community, several Jewish schools and associated summer camps as well as several periodical and book series sponsored by the above foundations. Other large Jewish ghettos in leading Polish cities included Biaystok Ghetto in Biaystok, Czstochowa Ghetto, Kielce Ghetto, Krakw Ghetto in Krakw, Lublin Ghetto, Lww Ghetto in present-day Lviv, Stanisaww Ghetto also in present-day Ukraine, Brze Ghetto in presend-day Belarus, and Radom Ghetto among others. [29][30] Britain demanded Poland to halt the exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful. One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II; the 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in the Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war. The fighting in isolated pockets of resistance lasted for several days, but the defence was broken almost instantly. While the German policy towards Jews was ruthless and criminal, their policy towards Christian Poles who helped Jews was very much the same. [119][120] Many Jews worked as shoemakers and tailors, as well as in the liberal professions; doctors (56% of all doctors in Poland), teachers (43%), journalists (22%) and lawyers (33%). [220] Many Jews spoke Polish with a distinct Yiddish or Hebrew accent, used a different nonverbal language, different gestures and facial expressions. In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia. Important yeshivot existed in Krakw, Pozna, and other cities. [249] Over 150,000 of them were repatriated or expelled back to new communist Poland along with the Jewish men conscripted to the Red Army from Kresy in 19401941. The Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland was founded in 1993. In addition to the socialists, Zionist parties were also popular, in particular, the Marxist Poale Zion and the orthodox religious Polish Mizrahi. "[197] The Germans "disappointed that Poles refused to collaborate",[198] made little attempts to set up a collaborationist government in Poland,[199][200][201] nevertheless, German tabloids printed in Polish routinely ran antisemitic articles that urged local people to adopt an attitude of indifference towards the Jews.[202]. [18][19] While the Holocaust occurred largely in German-occupied Poland, it was orchestrated by the Nazis. [108], Matters improved for a time under the rule of Jzef Pisudski (19261935). [295] There are also people with Jewish roots who do not possess adequate documentation to confirm it, due to various historical and family complications.[295]. Columbia University Press, 1993, This page was last edited on 4 April 2023, at 14:54. Settlers from outside the pale were forced to move to small towns, thus fostering the rise of the shtetls. [275][277] According to Stephen Denburg, "unlike the restitution of Church property, the idea of returning property to former Jewish owners has been met with a decided lack of enthusiasm from both the general Polish population as well as the government". In extreme cases, the Jews informed on other Jews to alleviate hunger with the awarded prize. [162], Jewish refugees under the Soviet occupation had little knowledge about what was going on under the Germans since the Soviet media did not report on the goings-on in territories occupied by their Nazi ally. By adoption if the child is under 16. The commission, led by Henry Morgenthau, Sr., concluded in its Morgenthau Report that allegations of pogroms were exaggerated. The Polish Jews were allowed to establish schools with Russian, German or Polish curricula. If you have Polish ancestry, you can apply to have your Polish citizenship confirmed, provided you meet specific eligibility criteria. [citation needed] The bulk of Jewish workers were organized in the Jewish trade unions under the influence of the Jewish socialists who split in 1923 to join the Communist Party of Poland and the Second International. In 1914, the German Zionist Max Bodenheimer founded the short-lived German Committee for Freeing of Russian Jews, with the goal of establishing a buffer state (Pufferstaat) within the Jewish Pale of Settlement, composed of the former Polish provinces annexed by Russia, being de facto protectorate of the German Empire that would free Jews in the region from Russian oppression. [62], The culture and intellectual output of the Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Find many great new & used options and get the best deals for PATHS OF EMANCIPATION Jews States Citizenship Jewish History Political Science at the best online prices at eBay! Shalom Shachna (c. 15001558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. Many people from Western Poland registered for repatriation back to the German zone, including wealthier Jews, as well as some political and social activists from the interwar period. Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in Lvov (1356), Sandomierz (1367), and Kazimierz near Krakw (1386). The Polish government in exile was also the only government to set up an organization (egota) specifically aimed at helping the Jews in Poland. The move comes as neighbouring Poland comes under the spotlight for a draft law which critics say would make it harder for Jews to recover property seized by Nazi occupiers during World War Two. Between October 1939 and July 1942 a system of ghettos was imposed for the confinement of Jews. Former senior officials and notable members of the Polish community were arrested and exiled together with their families. [273] The majority of Jewish claimants could not afford the restitution process without financial help, due to the filing costs, legal fees, and inheritance tax. Among the thousands of Polish officers killed by the Soviet NKVD in the Katy massacre there were 500600 Jews. A Polish political feud over Holocaust history has widened into an international condemnation of the government's attempts to silence a leading scholar on Polish-Jewish relations during World War II. Micha Waszyski (The Dybbuk), Aleksander Ford (Children Must Laugh). Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry, "Poland made many appeals on this matter in the. [137] Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores, and many of them were looted. In just one day all Polish and Jewish media were shut down and replaced by the new Soviet press,[166][unreliable source?] In August 1943, the Germans mounted an operation to destroy the Biaystok ghetto. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of 1 September 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population) primarily centered in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. [288], In March 1968 student-led demonstrations in Warsaw (see Polish 1968 political crisis) gave Gomuka's government an excuse to try and channel public anti-government sentiment into another avenue. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 800,000 Polish Jews survived the war, out of which between 50,000 and 100,000 were survivors from occupied Poland, and the remainder, survivors who made it abroad (mostly to the Soviet Union). The General Zionist party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the first Polish Sejm since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote. Part I, The Fate of Jewish Prisoners of War in the September 1939 Campaign, B. Meirtchak: "Jewish Military Casualties In The Polish Armies In Wwii", Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation, Contested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath. The campaign damaged Poland's reputation abroad, particularly in the U.S. Polish Jews generally were less influenced by Haskalah, rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on Halakha ("rabbis's law") following primarily Orthodox Judaism, Hasidic Judaism, and also adapting to the new Religious Zionism of the Mizrachi movement later in the 19th century. Now, Poland enables descendants of Polish Jews to receive. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population approximately three million of its citizens. About 50,000 Jews from the city and the surrounding region were confined in a small area of Biaystok. In 19671971 under economic, political and secret police pressure, over 14,000 Polish Jews chose to leave Poland and relinquish their Polish citizenship. [152], The number of Jews in Poland on 1 September 1939, amounted to about 3,474,000 people. [259], The best-known case is the Kielce pogrom of 4 July 1946,[260] in which thirty-seven Jews and two Poles were murdered. Free assessment. [6] Historians have used the label paradisus iudaeorum (Latin for "Paradise of the Jews"). Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. [305] The Jewish Renewal in Poland organization estimates that there are 200,000 "potential Jews" in Poland. On 15 August 1943, the Biaystok Ghetto Uprising began, and several hundred Polish Jews and members of the Anti-Fascist Military Organisation (Polish: Antyfaszystowska Organizacja Bojowa) started an armed struggle against the German troops who were carrying out the planned liquidation and deportation of the ghetto to the Treblinka extermination camp. Leonid Hurwicz was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Economics. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of Judaism. Family archives of the Jewish Genealogy at the JHI The current regulations applicable in Poland, commencing with the 1951 Act, allow for dual citizenship. [9][10][11] In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from Italy, as well as Sephardi Jews and Romaniote Jews migrating there from the Ottoman Empire. You can claim citizenship if you have a . According to the 1931 National Census there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. The commander of the OB, Mordechai Anielewicz, died fighting on 8 May 1943 at the organization's command centre on 18 Mila Street. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of Judaism based on Kabbalah known as Hasidism. [163][164][165] According to Irgun activists, the Polish state supplied the organisation with 25,000 rifles, additional material and weapons, and by summer 1939 Irgun's Warsaw warehouses held 5,000 rifles and 1,000 machine guns. The Litvaks, or Lithuanian Jews, have descended from the Germanic group of Ashkenazi Jews. [34], The tolerant situation was gradually altered by the Roman Catholic Church on the one hand, and by the neighboring German states on the other. Hospitals and schools were opened in Poland by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and ORT to provide service to Jewish communities. Confirmation of Polish citizenship occurs after the Polish government issues a decision on your behalf. . However, most Polonized Jews supported the revolutionary activities of Polish patriots and participated in national uprisings. [47][48][49][50] Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. [citation needed], In contrast to the prevailing trends in Europe at the time, in interwar Poland an increasing percentage of Jews were pushed to live a life separate from the non-Jewish majority. You can then apply for your Polish passport. The Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. See for example, the following works, which discuss Jewish life and culture, as well as Jewish-Christian relations during that period: M. Rosman, "In 1937, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs viewed the, Elusive Alliance: The German Occupation of Poland in World War I page 176 Jesse Kauffman 2015, A Deadly Legacy: German Jews and the Great War [261][bettersourceneeded] The debate in Poland continues about the involvement of regular troops in the killings, and possible Soviet influences. [104] The position of the Catholic Church had also become increasingly hostile to the Jews, who in the 1920s and 1930s were increasingly seen as agents of evil, that is, of Bolshevism. Food rations for the Poles were small (669 kcal per day in 1941) compared to other occupied nations throughout Europe and black market prices of necessary goods were high, factors which made it difficult to hide people and almost impossible to hide entire families, especially in the cities. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland in 1097 or 1098 were those banished from Prague. From 1791 to 1835, and until 1917, there were differing reconfigurations of the boundaries of the Pale, such that certain areas were variously open or shut to Jewish residency, such as the Caucasus. [78] Prominent Jews were among the members of KTSSN, the nucleus of the interim government of re-emerging sovereign Poland including Herman Feldstein, Henryk Eile, Porucznik Samuel Herschthal, Dr. Zygmunt Leser, Henryk Orlean, Wiktor Chajes and others. Charles X of Sweden, at the head of his victorious army, overran the cities of Krakw and Warsaw. [244], The number of Polish Jews who survived the Holocaust is difficult to ascertain. [280], Between 1945 and 1948, 100,000120,000 Jews left Poland. After 1967's Six-Day War, in which the Soviet Union supported the Arab side, the Polish communist party adopted an anti-Jewish course of action which in the years 19681969 provoked the last mass migration of Jews from Poland. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the Nazi ghettos and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians in the ensuing Holocaust in Poland. Even after the end of the uprising there were still several hundreds of Jews who continued living in the ruined ghetto. For centuries, Poland was home to the largest and most significant Ashkenazi Jewish community in the world. Some Polish writers had Jewish roots e.g. These include Midrasz, Dos Jidische Wort (which is bilingual), as well as a youth journal Jidele and "Sztendlach" for young children. [278] Dariusz Stola notes that the issues of property in Poland are incredibly complex, and need to take into consideration unprecedented losses of both Jewish and Polish population and massive destruction caused by Nazi Germany, as well as the expansion of Soviet Union and communism into Polish territories after the war, which dictated the property laws for the next 50 years. According to the British Embassy in Warsaw, in 1936 emigration was the only solution to the Jewish question that found wide support in all Polish political parties. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw two Jews were killed, 24 others were wounded, women were raped and over two million rubles worth of property was destroyed. "On Reconciling the Histories of Two Chosen Peoples." How to get a Polish Passport: Citizenship, Ancestry & More. At Auschwitz the Owicim State Museum currently houses exhibitions on Nazi crimes with a special section (Block Number 27) specifically focused on Jewish victims and martyrs. [71][72] The new czar, Alexander III, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. In 1884, 36 Jewish Zionist delegates met in Katowice, forming the Hovevei Zion movement. "[276], Facing violence and a difficult and expensive legal process,[268][271] many returnees eventually decided to leave the country rather than attempt reclamation. [125][126], Anti-Jewish sentiment in Poland had reached its zenith in the years leading to the Second World War. Some of them were Jewish themselves, and their prosecution after the war created an ethical dilemma. Jewish studies programs are offered at major universities, such as Warsaw University and the Jagiellonian University. These developments contributed to a greater support among the Jewish community for Zionist and socialist ideas. Barbara Engelking said in a TV interview last week that Polish Jews felt disappointed in Poles during World War II, referring to what she described as . A countrywide Jewish Religious Community, led by Dawid Kahane, who served as chief rabbi of the Polish Armed Forces, functioned between 1945 and 1948 until it was absorbed by the CKP. Yiddish authors, most notably Isaac Bashevis Singer, went on to achieve international acclaim as classic Jewish writers; Singer won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature. The archaic English term pale is derived from the Latin word palus, a stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary. [264] As part of the reform the Polish People's Republic enacted legislation on "abandoned property", placing severe limitations on inheritance that were not present in prewar inheritance law, for example limiting restitution to the original owners or their immediate heirs. Attempting to reclaim an occupied property often put the claimant at a risk of physical harm and even death. By the time of the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989, only 5,00010,000 Jews remained in the country, many of them preferring to conceal their Jewish origin. Nechama Tec, "When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland", Oxford University Press US, 1987. Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II. The Soviet rule resulted in near collapse of the local economy, characterized by insufficient wages and general shortage of goods and materials. [299] It is one of the world's largest Jewish museums. The Bund Council in August 1937, Warsaw, Poland. Controversial communist prosecutor dies in the UK", "The Jews in Poland after the Second World War. He was equally successful in his battles against the Russians. First attempts to improve Polish-Israeli relations began in the mid-1970s. The decline in the status of the Jews was briefly checked by Casimir IV Jagiellon (14471492), but soon the nobility forced him to issue the Statute of Nieszawa,[45] which, among other things, abolished the ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine right and the law of the land." A European Union (EU) passport allows you to work, live, retire and study in any country in the European Union without limitations. [11] In 1986 partial diplomatic relations with Israel were restored,[11] and full relations were restored in 1990 as soon as communism fell. The Jewish community suffered greatly during the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack uprising which had been directed primarily against the Polish nobility and landlords. [citation needed] However, this did not prevent them from becoming victims of a campaign, centrally organized by the Polish Communist Party, with Soviet backing, which equated Jewish origins with "Zionism" and disloyalty to a Socialist Poland. Many Poles were not willing to hide Jews who might have escaped the ghettos or who might have been in hiding due to fear for their own lives and that of their families. Many Jews were found alive in the ruins of the former Warsaw Ghetto during the 1944 general Warsaw Uprising when the Poles themselves rose up against the Germans. Further information on the Garrison schools for male children: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: 15721795, The development of Judaism in Poland and the Commonwealth, Jews of Poland within the Russian Empire (17951918), Polish Jews and the struggle for Poland's independence, Between antisemitism and support for Zionism and Jewish state in Palestine, World War II and the destruction of Polish Jewry (193945), Territories annexed by the USSR (19391941), The March 1968 events and their aftermath, Historical core Jewish population (using current borders) with Jews as a% of the total Polish population.

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